Ecological Approaches
By viewing the previous language teaching approaches, I believe that no single teaching method is the best approach for all language learners. I think an eclectic approach which uses techniques from a variety of approaches is the best, to meet the individual cultural, social, emotional and learning needs of the students.
To summarise the definition of what an approach, method and technique is Celce-Murcia (2001, p. 6) states, an approach to language teaching “is something that reflects a certain model or research paradigm, a theory…a method…is a set of procedures, ie., a system that spells out rather precisely how to teach a second or foreign language…a technique is a classroom device or activity..” Approaches, or methods are usually embedded in a syllabus with sequential outcomes for the learner to achieve. A single method to language teaching lacks flexibility and as Strevens (1977, in Celce-Murcia, 2001, p. 6) notes “the complex circumstances of teaching and learning languages with different kinds of pupils, teachers, aims and objectives, approaches, methods, and materials, classroom techniques and standards of achievement- make it inconceivable that any single method could achieve optimum success in all circumstances.”
According to Lier (2010, p. 2), an ecological approach to language learning is needed which “focuses primarily on the quality of learning opportunities, of classroom interaction and of educational experience.” … to create “valid contexts, relationships, agency, motivation and identity.” An ecological approach views the learning process, the activities included and the movement of students and teachers. As Lier (2010, p. 4) states, "ecology is the study of the relationships among elements in an environment or ecosystem, in particular the interactions among such elements." For instance when people talk to each other they are related through language.
According to Lier (2010, p. 4), "agency…(is) movement, a change of state or direction, or even a lack of movement where movement is expected.” This includes moving eyes to see a bee fly or a student may refuse to move such as in a conversation. As Lier (2010, p. 4) notes, “agency is therefore a central concept in learning, at many levels and in many manifestations." According to Lier (2010, p. 4), ”autonomy, motivation and investment are products of a person’s agency. A passive learner will not learn…to learn properly learners “need to make choices and employ agency in more self-directed ways.” Furthermore Lier (2010, p. 5) notes that “agency is also closely connected to identity.” If students are given choices doing challenging projects a learners’ agency can be awakened. As Lier (2010, p. 5) states "learning is inseparably tied to agency.”
According to Assalahi (2013, p. 589) “language teachers’ agency to their belief system has been widely reported to influence classroom teaching practices.” Assalahi (2013) investigated the connection between EFL teachers’ beliefs about grammar teaching and their practices in Saudi Arabia public schools. Four male Saudi EFL teachers in public schools were interviewed, to explore their beliefs about grammar teaching and their practice and what influenced their beliefs. The results of the study revealed that grammar was largely taught using a forms approach, using rules and was teacher focused facilitated by using the first language. This approach was favoured due to time restrictions, lack of materials and difficult grammar rules. Teachers in the study believed that the forms focused instruction was the most beneficial for the students. According to Assalahi (2013, p. 597), “these..contextual factors…impact the belief system and are widely recognised in grammar teaching research to guide teachers’ decision making.” Assalahi (2013, p. 590) notes one of the contentious issues with language teaching is how to teach grammar, “whether grammar should be formally taught” with a focus on forms which involves mastery of rules of grammar and accuracy. Or whether by meaning-focused instruction promoted by CLA where grammar rules are practiced through communicative tasks, or real-life situations.
Prabhu (1990, in Hall, 2011, p. 59-60) according to Hall
(2011), stated that a best method of teaching was “illogical given that teachers
quite reasonably adapted and combined individual methods to accommodate
contextual influences and their own personal beliefs.” Hall (2011) noted that Kumaravadivelu (1994, in Hall, 2011) proposed that we were in a ‘Postmethod era’. As
Richards and Rogers (2001, in Hall, 2011, p. 60) state that such “methods can be
studied not as prescriptions for how to teach but as a source of well-used
practices, which teachers can adapt or implement based on their own needs.” The
approach teachers take is influenced by their beliefs. According
to Hall (2011), Brown (2007, in Hall, 2011, p. 62) believed that teachers’ “conception
of how language works…what language is for and how language is used by people,
affects what and how it is taught.”
According to Hall (2011, p. 67) practice of skills can take many forms from “controlled drills and repetition, to pair and group information gaps, discussions, games and problem-solving activities” with either an explicit form focus or a real-world context. Controlled forms encourage accuracy, whereas freer forms encourage fluency.
As Hall (2011, p. 68) notes “socio-cultural and
social constructivist approaches to language learning conceive learning not as
an individualistic, internal mental process but as a social activity where learners
are active and interactive.” Vygotsky (1970, in Hall, 2011) termed Zone of Proximal
Development or ZPD which is when students are enabled by others to work at a
level just beyond their reach. Knowledge is co-constructed collaboratively.
The following video explains in more detail Vygotsky's Sociocultural theory of learning.
What is the place of grammar teaching in the ELT classroom? Whether explicitly taught or taught incidentally. As Hall (2011) notes even if form focused instruction is used as the method the types of structures and timing still need to be determined.
As Harmer (2007, in Hall, 2011, p. 70) states “students
acquire language best when they have focused on it either because they need it
or have come across it in a meaning-focused communicative task, or because…they
have notices language which is relevant to them at a particular time.”
Savignon (1972, in Savignon, 1991, p. 264) used the term “communicative competence to characterise the ability of language learners to interact with other speakers, to make meaning as distinct form their ability to perform on discrete-point tests of grammatical knowledge.” Grammatical competence was according to Savignon (in Celce-Murcia, 2001) sentence-level grammatical form and discourse competence was the interconnectedness of words or phrases in a text. Finally Sociocultural competence, according to Savignon (in Celce-Murcia, 2001, p. 18) was “an understanding of the social context in which language is used.” such as the roles the different participants play, the function of the interaction and what the information is.
Berns (1990, in Savignon,1991) believed that there is a need to understand the sociocultural contexts of language use to understand communicative competence of learners. Furthermore, Berns believed (1990, in Savignon,1991, p. 267) the teacher needs to understand the “sociocultural differences in styles of learning.” The local sociocultural context using local materials should be utilised by teachers.
The role of grammar teaching still needs to be considered. As Savignon (1991, p. 268) states, “communication cannot take place in the absence of structure, or grammar, a set of shared assumptions about how language works, along with a willingness of participants to cooperate in the negotiation of meaning.”
Savignon (1991, p. 269) suggested that a combination of form-focused and meaning-focused activities should be used during language instruction. The combination depends on several factors including “learner age, nature and length of instructional sequence, opportunities for language contact outside the classroom,” …and…”teacher preparation..” As Savignon (1991, p. 269) states research findings “support the integration of form-focused exercises with meaning-focused experience…grammar is important, and learners seem to focus best on grammar when it relates to their communicative needs and experiences.” Attention to form should also include broader features such as discourse and sociolinguistic rules.
Sociolinguists (in Savignon, 1991) have documented that student motivation and self-identity are also vital for language acquisition. According to Savignon (1991, p. 270) “in second language acquisition, learner identification and motivation interact with opportunities and contexts of language use to influence the development of competence.” Context such as the setting and genre is vital for students to gain meaning from a text. Students should be given a variety of oral and written texts in context, including cross-cultural awareness.
As Savignon (1991, p. 270) states, “the classroom itself ..is..a social context of learning."
Comments
Post a Comment